Journal of Researches in Islamic Architecture

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Seljuk period is one of the important periods of Islamic Art in Iran architecture. The Seljuk brickworks represent Iran architectural perfection in aspects of techniques and variety. The magnificence of Seljuk brickworks is not found in other later periods. Therefore, further investigation is needed due to the importance of this issue. In this research, literature reviews, field studies and survey is done by analytical- descriptive method. The aims of research are as followed introducing the important motifs of brickworks identify, variety of layout types, and the sustain modality of brickworks during the historical periods. According to the aims, all of Seljuk monuments in Iran which have brickwork decoration were detected and their brickwork decorations identified. The decorations which were unique at that time and were repeated, has been determined as index motifs. Afterward, these motifs and the techniques were found in Khwarezmid and Ilkhanid monuments and their changes or conversions to other decorations have been identified. Most of the architectural exterior surfaces are decorated by the brickwork in Seljuk period funerary monuments with polygonal plan have the most decorative surfaces such as Kharaghan tombs and minarets. In this period, the simplicity of minarets was changed to richest drawing and decorative forms such as Menar-e Ziar and Cheheldokhtaran. It is noteworthy that in addition to this, the monuments including the Robatsharaf Inn and Jame mosque of Golpayegan are decorated with verity brick motifs which combine with stucco reliefs. In general, decorative designs and prolific body of brickwork is one of the special features of Seljuk architecture. Various brick rows are used in the Seljuk monuments and they are categorized to Golchin, Jenaghi, Hasiri, Doraj, Kofi Magheli and Bannaie inscriptions. Golchin’s motifs have some “mother” patterns which are combined tomake various designs. Golchin motifs perform in tow groups “simple” and “compound”. Jenaghi brickwork, perhaps because of its easy performance,has usually been used in corner of the dome and arches. Also some different technique of brickworks such as “Khofteraste” (relieve motifs), Moshabak, Gerehbannaie perform in outer surfaces of Seljuk monuments. Khofteraste brickwork technique was used in high altitudesin order to relieve its motifs. Moshabak technique was used in doorway to pass light through andGerehbannaie generally was used for minaret decorations Selengeh, Chaharlengeh, Sheshvahasht are the prevalent motifs of Ghereh in Seljuk period. An innovative technique: combination of brick with different materials used in Seljuk period that followed in later periods. Hence, Seljuk monuments are decorated by different brickwork in motifs and techniques including the Golchin and Gereh. In addition, initiative techniques such as the incorporation of brick with tile (glazed brick) or stucco were created by artists as well as Kofie-bannaie. Accordingly, it is obvious that Seljuk brickwork decoration is the rising point of Persian brickworks. In Khwarezmid and Ilkhanid periods, brickwork decorations were not used as extent as before. In these periods, brickwork was replaced with stucco and tile. However, some of brickwork decorations such as Golchin, Doraj, Magheli and Bannaie inscriptions were followed by the next periods. Also, the Gereh motifs of Seljuk period became the source of compound decoration for the next time. In Khwarezmid period, molded bricks with relief motifs were developed. This kind of molded bricks in combination with glazed molded brick or the tile, which were pre-cut or insitu-cut, became very common throughout, Khwarezmid and Ilkhanid periods. In such way that incorporation of brick with tile included the hole of decorations during the following periods. Pre-cut brick and pre-cut tile techniques at the end of Seljuk period were used in GonbadKabud in Maragheh and it became the beginning point of this type of decorations in the following periods. The techniques of brick and tile combination so called-Moarraq (mosaic) exists in Khwarezmid monuments such as ForoumadJame mosque and Malekzozan. Also, some skillfully combination of brick and tile were used in two important Ilkhanid monuments including Gonbad-e Soltaniye and Bayazid-e Bastami treasury. It could be argued that combined decorations (combining brick with tile) belongs to the culmination of Ilkhanid decorations. Hence, variety of techniques and innovations that happened in the brickworks of Seljuk periods caused some changes in the decorations of the following periods. Gradually, new types of architectural decoration over the motif, function, and accomplishment were developed based on changes done during Seljuk period.

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Murals are the main, media of human culture and civilization and the place and its long history in Iranian art is clear. There are specific forms of mural paintings in some Iranian architecture that are different from other usual wall paintings in materials, methods as well as implementation techniques. Unfortunately, these mural paintings are not studied certainly until now. Therefore, further investigation is needed due to the importance of this issue.

In the scientific literature, different definitions of this kind of murals which provided examples of them pointed out: Canvas murals, Oil-on-canvas mural, Marouflage wall painting,  Marouflaged canvasmural, Oil painting on canvas onto walls, Marouflaged Canvas, Textile wall hangings, Canvas painting adhered to the wall surface, The painting had been adhered to the ceiling by Marouflage, Mural painting on canvas, Used a canvas set in to the wall, Oil on maroufle canvas for mural painting, Fabric-based murals, Ceiling canvases, Painting Hung on the wall, Wall Cover, Oil on Canvas attach on wall, Oil on Canvas mounted on wall.

In Europe during the 17^th century there was a movement away from painting on solid supports towards more portable painting techniques, giving rise to the easel painting tradition. Particularly in France, traditional fresco painting techniques were replaced by mural painting techniques similar to those used in easel painting. This new mural painting technique involved the use of textile supports that the artist could work on in their studio instead of on high scaffolding in large public places1. Marouflage is the term often used to describe this mural painting process, which involves attaching a large-scale painting on canvas to a solid substrate. The solid substrate is often architectural, such as a wall or ceiling. The complete canvas murals were often hung by specialized mural hangers, not the artist themselves. Experienced hangers developed techniques with adhesive properties that were able to bond, two materials which have widely varying properties, such as degree of expansion and contraction, porosity, etc. Ideally a marouflage adhesive needs the following characteristics: a viscous paste that is easy to apply, a slow to medium setting time, high initial tack and bond strength. Using a thick paste prevents dripping and unwanted mess during application. A high initial tack prevents the mural from falling during installation and slower setting times allow substantial working time so that the large murals can be properly positioned.

Regarding to importance of necessity of art understanding before conservation, it is obvious that common conservation procedures on these relics (without appropriate understanding) have an inappropriate results on authenticity and integrity of the relics. Unfortunately, there is not adequate research about technology and conservation of these relics and related fields.  The aim of this research is the identification of history of development, and used materials and techniques in these historic paintings by field and literature investigations. Technological understanding of this kind of murals during the time by application of literature review and data explanation. Due to low information in Persian, European Marouflaged canvasmural has been studied more than Iranian relics. The research subject and case studies are studied in a qualitative and descriptive research method and the subject is considered with ten historical and theoretical aspects. These paintings are executed on the layer of cloth (canvas) and then installed on the wall that is known as a part of the architecture arrays. This research at the first library study is conducted and then according to the results, the field studies are carried out and finally, the data are analyzed. Knowing the number of Marouflage according to literature review, the identification of constituent layers of Marouflage according to field studies, and Understanding the differences between a common wall Paintings and Textile Marouflage in Iran, are the results of this paper. In architectural conservation in Iran there is a perspective called Iranian-Islamic whose meaning is the influence of Islamic belief and thought upon tradition of conservation architectural works during Islamic era of Iran.

In this paper, the process of formation of this type of wall painting in Iran was studied and present examples of this method in Iranian architecture are introduced and explained. Some of the architectural interior surfaces are decorated by the textile painting by Marouflaged in Ilkhanid, Safavid and Quajarperiod; funerary monuments with polygonal plan have the most decorative surfaces such as Soltanieh Dome, Sheykh Safi mausoleum, Maryam church, Golestan palace and etc. According to studies, there was technical change in manufacturing process of large wall paintings and ceiling paintings at Renaissance period. It resulted to production of new kind of murals which known as Marouflaged canvasmural. The research obtained appropriate results about production, manufacturing, historical samples and effect of technological problems on conservation of Marouflaged canvasmural.

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One way to improve the quality of the human environment is to clear its spatial hierarchy. For this purpose, public, semi-public, semi-private and private areas should be clearly separated, and their border areas should be distinguished. This will increase the sense of attachment to the environment and gives identity to the residential environments. This article aims to investigate the concept of territory as one of the factors affecting the quality of the human relationship with the residential environment. To achieve this objective, the concept of territory and the factors affecting it are defined. According to the theoretical foundations presented, it can be stated that the territory is a mechanism to monitor the border between self and others, and is a mean to achieve the desired privacy. The main feature of the territory is its high dependency on culture. It also has features such as a sense of identity and possibility of personalization.
Many factors affect the territory, including social factors, cognitive-psychological factors, physical factors, functional factors, geographical-cultural factors, as well as time. The concept also has human systems such as the primary territory (on which individuals have full and extensive monitoring), secondary territory (with less central and exclusive role, and acts as a bridge between the primary and the public territory), and public territory (is quite temporary and almost anyone has access to and the right to use it); according to the research objective, these human hierarchy will be studied in Noghan district.
In the early Islamic centuries, the holy city of Mashhad was created by combining the ancient city of Noghan and the surrounding villages. After the martyrdom of Imam Reza (AS) and joining of Mashhad-al-Reza and Noghan, the name Mashhad became widespread. However the physicality and name of Noghan still remained in the vicinity of Mashhad until today and for a thousand and two hundred years. Therefore, Noghan is one of the oldest district in the city of Mashhad. Despite the importance of Noghan district in historical studies, beliefs, architecture, and urban planning as an intertextuality document, large part of it disappeared after recent implementation of modernization and reconstruction projects in the fabric surrounding Imam Reza holy shrine. With regard to the physical progress of the project in other sectors, the least amount of manipulation and progress happened in Noghan district. This represents the necessity to protect the identity of the district. One of the salient features of this district is placement of holy shrine in direction of Qibla, pointed to as bi-qibla feature of the distrcit. This unique feature causes accommodation of pilgrims from Arabic countries in Noghan and sense of attachment of most of the resident to the area.
In this district, because of accommodation of pilgrims in the houses of people residing in the fabric, certain type of life has been formed, and the area classifications and spatial hierarchies have been changed. Therefore, this study examines the spatial hierarchy and the area classification in the district, and finally, provides recommendations to improve the quality of shelter design in the district. This study applies, its variable is qualitative, and its practical method includes document-based studies, questionnaires, and field observations. The results show that the human territory system in Noghan district has taken a special form for simultaneous presence of pilgrims and residents in the same residential house. In fact, due to this coexistence, the initial territory is limited. Secondary territory in this neighborhood has found dual and fluid nature, so as due to the characteristics of its audience (reference culture, length of residence, type of residence etc.) is moving toward the public or private sphere.
This fluid nature is less aggregated to physical dimensions, and more related to perceptive-psychological dimensions. Therefore, due to the simultaneous presence of self and others, the secondary territory in this area is divided into the semi-public and semi-private spaces, where the scale for the area classification varies according to the target audience. Holy Shrine of Imam Reza (AS) is one of the most important factors leading to increased length of residence and satisfaction of residents, and hence affects the perception of territories. In addition, the district due to be near to the holy shrine has a 24 hour living, resulting in increased security. Finally, it can be stated that the nature of the territory in this neighborhood is exposed to a kind of transformation. Thus, since identity of residential hierarchy in the district depends on mixing of residents and pilgrims and its recreating should be performed based on the lifestyle of its residents and the existing territorial system, to preserve the residents of the fabric and enhance local identity.

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Karbandi is the structure of a kind of roofing in Persian architecture. One of the main issues related to the design of karbandi is that, due to its geometrical structure, it is not possible to design any desired karbandi on a given base. Therefore, it is necessary for the designer to be able to discern the proper karbandi for a given base. The most critical stage in designing a karbandi is when the designer should recognize the number of sides of a proper karbandi for the given base. Therefore, the question that this paper is trying to answer is that from a mathematical point of view how an architect can find out the proper segmentation of the base to fit the geometrical structure of a karbandi.
In this paper first a literature review of traditional methods for designing karbandis is conducted in which the methods of three master architects are examined. They include master Pirnia, Sha’rbaf, and Lorzadeh. The problem with these traditional methods is that no clear explanation is given for the way the designer can reach a proper division of the base. Only Pirnia speaks of a simple empirical formula that was used by traditional architects.
This formula has its specific limitations too. It is so arranged that in order to produce a meaningful answer, the numbers pertaining to the length and width of the base rectangle have to be integer numbers. However, it is highly probable that a designer wants to design a karbandi on a rectangular base with non-integer dimensions. Besides its limited range of function, it is not mathematically clear how much accurate its answers are. Pirnia admits that this formula was not aimed to be quite accurate and most of the times the designers had to modify the original dimensions of the base in order to find an acceptable one. The less accurate the segmentation of the base rectangle, the more deviated will be the shamseh piece of the karbandi from a true circle towards an ellipse.
Therefore, in the absence of a precise mathematical solution for this problem, it was probable that most of the times the designers had to content themselves with proximate solutions out of trial and error process or had to alter the original dimensions of the base in order to be able to build up a karbandi on it.
In this paper this problem is formulated as a mathematical question and is solved. Then a program in Maple language is written to do the iterative calculations and print the relevant answers. Designers can easily run the program to find possible karbandis for any desired base. When the program is executed in Maple application, it prompts the user to determine whether a one-footed karbandi is required or a two-footed one. Then the length and width of the base rectangle and finally, the acceptable tolerance are asked. The acceptable tolerance is defined based on the ratio of the length to width of the rectangle. After entering these variants, the calculations are done and the answers which are within the domain of acceptable tolerance are printed orderly from the most exact answers to the least.
In other words, the first answer belongs to the rectangle which is most similar to the original base. The output of the program includes the method for the segmentation of the base, the radius of the cutting circle, the proportion of the sides of the suggested rectangle, and the relevant tolerance for every printed answer. The advantages of this program include the high level of accuracy and the possibility to check an infinite number of options in a very short time (in the current version of the program the variants are set in order that the program checks 1000 options to produce its outputs but this number can be adjusted by the user). After introducing the mathematical solution to the problem and writing the relevant program to do the calculations, the paper continues to include one example of its application to design one-footed and two-footed karbandis on a given base to show its capability and convenience.
After that, the program is used to test the credibility of the empirical formula mentioned by master Pirnia. Nine different bases that are mentioned by Pirnia to show the application of the formula are used to compare the results. Surprisingly, it is observed that the Pirnia's simple empirical formula in five cases out of nine cases produces the most exact answers produced by the program. Regarding cases in which the answer by the formula is not the most exact answer according to the program, it can be said that this difference reflects practical, structural, or aesthetical concerns of traditional architects. Therefore, the test shows that the formula used by Persian architects, though limited in its scope, was really a working formula that could be used as a useful basic guidance for designers of karbandis. This finding might be related to the historical fact that there were expert mathematicians who were interested in solving practical problems of professions like architecture and who devised simple mathematical solutions to be used by ordinary practitioners.

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In this study emptiness is considered as a transcendental and effective concept that appears in the form and content of things. What is seen as internally present in an entity is existent in the first instance because of the external presence of its opposite. The entity and its opposite are intertwined through the principle of inverse correspondence, a higher level of accord that emerges from the disposition of asymmetrical qualities. this symmetrical, yet reversed, reciprocity is the logic of ‘‘is and yet is not’’ and that of ‘‘simultaneity, and biconditionality, of opposites without their higher synthesis.
Emptiness is often understood as nonexistence, a void that is symptomatic of a predominant fixation on objects. In contrast emptiness is neither nothing nor the suffocating void of limitless expansion in which things are at best desolately scattered. Rather, it is the ultimate foundation of reality that transcends ideas of ‘‘being’’ and ‘‘non-being.’’ Subsequently, what is operating in emptiness is a double negation: the negation of being, which leads to nonbeing, and the negation of nonbeing.  Existential Identity depends on the dialectical relationship of that thing with its opposites. The identity of a being is determined not by what is believed to be existent within itself but by its dialectical relationship with the opposite, like the moment in which one finds one’s self to be the being of warmth in reference to coldness enveloping and penetrating the body.
Ignoring Emptiness and empty space caused intensifying the focus of designers and architects on the full space and this has increased the contemporary architecture crisis. this study aims to take advantage of the values of the vernacular architecture of Iran and its continuity. It relies on the theory of empty space and the opposite pairs, as the first pillar of creating empty space. Answers to this question: what is the role of empty space in the vernacular Yazd houses in semantic dimension?
 This study aimed to clarify the role of this concept in the vernacular architecture of Iran by understanding the meaning of emptiness. and evaluating selected houses as a case study. This research has been done in qualitative research and data is collected by observation and study of written documents.
The emergence of empty concept coincides with two elements or opposite qualities in such a way that the two opposites are interconnected without diminishing one another. Based on theoretical findings, the expression of the empty concept is conditional on the existence of three pillars: The first: the contradiction, the second: interaction, the third: balance and unity.
Based on the theoretical findings, expression of emptiness concept has three main pillars. Firstly: the contradiction (Coexistence of two opposing elements), secondly: the interaction of two opposites, thirdly: balance and unity. Since the emptiness operates as the foundational principle in traditional genres of architecture in Asia suchas Iran, the process of integrating the three pillars extracted from theoretical foundations were evaluated and analyzed in five vernacular houses of Yazd. In the phenomenological study of five houses in Yazd as a case study houses were investigated in three aspects: shape - body, functional, semantic. This article focuses on semantic aspect.
The findings depict that the emptiness as a transcendental concept is the result of the process of opposite elements and their interactions and the development of the unity of opposites. According this study, the philosophy of emptiness has manifested in the form of the dialectic of opposites. this study has brought one’s attention to the arrangement of contrasting qualities in the yazd houses such as the crossing and peresence inside and outside.
The architect of an Iranian traditional house positions things of spiritual character in such a way that they create a coordinated balance between forces. In this fashion, the house ‘‘brings into special focus the underlying relatedness of things, the mutuality which exists in spite of differences between outside and inside, great and small, and observer and observed.
Vernacular architects had understood the necessity of companionship of opposing pairs and their dialectical as an essential element of empty concept. They have considered interactive opposite qualities such as darkness and light, outside and inside, male and female, silence and talk, simplicity and complexity, uniformityand variety. The results of the research show that empty space plays a major role in the vernacular architecture of Iran. The empty spaces are more focused and authentic and solid spaces take their identity and credit from empty and void spaces.
 

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Beauty is related to experiencing beauty events, which has different beauty experiences among people due to different circumstances, however, understanding beauty is incredibly difficult. On one hand, the public agree that beauty is considered a value as far as its particular manifestations are pleasing, on the other hand, as it is worth studying, it is considered an educational issue. Moreover, as it is a living object of social development, it is also regarded as a cultural topic. An artistic work, whether a result of one's work or a product of the artistic innovation of a group, appears due to inspirations or advices of a society and necessarily resembles the color of society. Undoubtedly, features of artist's life and even his/her physical features are reflected in his/her artwork, but reflection is not direct, and indeed it can be recognized and measured after passing through filtering of society. The beauty of urban environment as a living space, experienced by a wide range of people every day, is one of transcendental needs of human and functions as a stimulus for his flourishing. Therefore, in forming and designing the environment, category of art and its relation to aesthetics is of high significance and becomes a valuable and purposeful phenomenon in the society. Although aesthetic values differ between various cultures and communities, if these values are in conflict with cultural issues of society, they will create rational, accepted, and emotional norms of society. In addition, considering undeniable relation of any designing and shaping human life environment, like designing environment with art and also the relation of this reformulations with spiritual concepts of beauty, the concept of "aesthetics" which is in fact basis of philosophical and theoretical designs, becomes of great importance. On the other hand, urban buildings and spaces as an identifier of Iranian cities, have been shaped under the influence of Iranian-Islamic artistic and thought patterns over many years and have provided opportunity for public cooperation and interactions and in present era, with evolution of architecture and urbanism, process of designing and creating urban spaces has declined and a defective role of national identity and Iranian-Islamic culture is manifested, which indeed, ignoring these issues in designing has led to lack of originality and validity of the design. Therefore, this study attempts to consider the mentioned importance and answer vital questions of " what is the theoretical position of fundamental aesthetic values in two views of the West and Iranian-Islamic world?! What is practical application of an overview of the fundamental aesthetic values in Islamic-Iranian architecture and urbanism?", Thus, the current paper investigates theoretical concept of fundamental aesthetics values, to identify Iranian-Islamic fundamental aesthetics values and explain functional status of fundamental aesthetic values in creating Islamic-Iranian architecture and urbanism as well. As this paper attempts to deepen fundamental aesthetic values in creating Islamic-Iranian architecture and urbanism, it is considered basic research. Since urbanization is an interdisciplinary field, subject of aesthetics can be examined in the humanities and school sciences (theoretical and practical wisdom) and in science (physical dimensions).
This research is developmental and functional in terms of purpose and approach (characteristics and nature of data) and qualitative nature and methods; it is a description of type of content analysis and in the section of theoretical framework is interrogative. The information is collected by generalizing to field of Iranian-Islamic architecture and urban planning with method of deductive reasoning seeks to explain basic values of aesthetics and provide a new classification appropriate to principles of creating Iranian-Islamic architecture and urban planning. The collection of data and qualitative information in this research is also using written scientific documentary sources and libraries in order to explain conceptual model of research.
In a general conclusion, it can be said that today in Iran, beauty is either imitated by Western models or there are many shortcomings in applying the principles of Iranian-Islamic aesthetics.
This is due to the lack of a true understanding of fundamental values of Islamic Iranian aesthetics.
Therefore, a suitable framework should be created for architects and urban planners, who can extract desired criteria by considering basic values of aesthetics. For this purpose, studies have been done in previous studies and theoretical basis to assess direct relationship of aesthetics factors. These factors show relationship between fundamental values of Iranian-Islamic aesthetics and types, criteria and sub-criteria of aesthetics. Therefore, findings of research on fundamental values of aesthetics in Islam include four main categories:
1. Reasonable aesthetics 2. Sensible 3. Reasonable based on sensible, and 4. Sensible based on reasonable. Furthermore, in order to evolve the fundamental values of aesthetics, types of aesthetics are needed, these include: 1. Logical values, 2. Meaning and codification values, 3. Aspirations and logical ideas respectively and 4. Emotional and moral contexts values. These values which are directly related to fundamental values of Iranian-Islamic aesthetics and Iranian-Islamic aesthetic criteria, are related to practical application of an overview of fundamental values of aesthetics in Iranian-Islamic architecture and urban planning. Since aesthetic criteria are basis for assessment, to identify and select t fundamental values of aesthetics, these criteria include; Harmony (purposefulness, proportionality, balance, order, symmetry, correspondence), meaningfulness and perception (spiritual influence, equation, contrast, free will, disinterestedness), absolute self-existence of God (hierarchy, unity, ideal of embodiment, concentration, harmony, peace, vicinity, sophistication), emotional pleasure (relationships between shapes and forms and colors, pure manifestation of emotions and feelings) and stability and identity (piety, inclusion, freedom, connection with past and future, emergence of nature) and are directly related to types of aesthetic values. Thus, architecture and urban projects can offer new patterns in terms of Iranian-Islamic culture and employ creativity of designers. This was done by creating a logical relationship between aesthetic values and application of values in theoretical field of architecture and urban project.

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The principle of "privacy" is one of the principles of Islamic worldview and culture, which is considered as one of the important moral and cultural values ​​in the social life of Muslims. Throughout the history of urbanization in Iran, the concept of privacy and respect for privacy has been influential from the formation of architectural space to the spatial organization of cities and Locating urban functions side by side. On the other hand, Iranian-Islamic urban planning should be such that in addition to supplythe needs of the material realm of human life, it can also meet the needs of other realms of human life (psychological and spiritual realms of life) and in the meantime Observance of the principle of privacy plays an important role in meeting such needs. In the contemporary urban planning of the iran, by applying Western ideas and theories and imitating modernist models, the principle of privacy, like many other valuable concepts, has been forgotten, so that now Less attention is paid to this concept in urban development programs and plans. The purpose of this study is to develop criteria and indicators for the emergence and manifestation of the concept of privacy in Iranian-Islamic urban planning. Research method in this research is based on systematic review of texts, studies and research related to the subject and content analysis of information collected. In conclusion, the present article presents the indicators related to the principle of privacy in various components of the urban environment, including physical-functional and socio-cultural components, and Recommends their application in urban development programs and plans to improve the quality of urban environments.

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