Journal of Researches in Islamic Architecture

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Introduction: The plaster altars of Ilkhanid period, as one of the most glorious decorative representations of architecture of this period, are a unique collection of motifs and different inscriptions that has a great diversity in construction dimensions and forms. These reliefs that are included in almost all parts of plaster altars, including frontal, margins, columns, capitals, arches, etc. have different plant (arabesque and khataei) and geometric reliefs most of them are integrated with existing Kufic scripts. In this article, the researcher tries to introduce different geometric motifs used in plaster altars of Ilkhanid period and evaluate the variety, constancy or frequency and application of each of these nodes in different parts of altars, in terms of the extent of assigned area and the used position.

In this research that is done with a focus on the stuccoed altars attributed to the Ilkhanid period 12 stuccoed altars are selected from 5 provinces and the researcher tries to answer the following questions: what are the mostly used nodes in the stuccoed altars of the Ilkhanid period? Where are these nodes used in different parts of the altar and what is their relation with the plant designs or lines used in the altars? Regarding the fact that needle decorations are identified as the common geometric designs in the plaster works of Seljuq and Ilkhanid periods, the researcher does not consider them in this research and just focuses on the node designs. Since it is very important to deal with the plaster arrays that have geometric motifs and there is not any rule to detect and distinguish the altars of Ilkhanid period from the samples that were made before, this research can be considered as an introduction for understanding the visual styles of the ornaments during the Ilkhanid period which have been ignored in the literature so far.

Methodology: Data collection has been made based on field research (taking photos, linear analysis of pictures) and written references that has analyzed the collected data from the samples through historical- comparative method based on geometric patterns. First, each altar and its motifs (especially the geometric ones) are described and then, they are classified and analyzed using the tables, diagrams and investigating some samples of the geometric motifs and the places they were used and also integrating them with other motifs and scrolls. The data was collected using documentary resources, field researches, observations made by the authors, images of the geometric motifs of the altars and drawing different types of nodes with Matrix 7.0.

Conclusion: The results obtained from 12 dated plaster altars of Ilkhanid period shows that the role of these Knots in these altars is very important most of them are based on the numbers 6 and 8. These Knots are mostly on the side walls, in front of arch and the edges of the plaster altars and in the most studied samples, the Knots are integrated with plant motifs (flowers, leaves, etc.) and simple geometric figures (circle, triangle, oval, etc.). Among the studied stuccoed altars, the only one in which nodes have been used widely, is the arcade of the altar in the central Mosque of Orumieh (Urmia) because this kind of node has not been used in any of the other plastered altars of Ilkhanid period. Oljeitu altar is the only example in which there is the unique node of reversed top that has been combined with Kufic inscriptions.

Generally, it is possible to classify the nodes in the stuccoed altars of Ilkhanid period in terms of patterns and designs into the following groups: the function of simple nodes alone in the narrow borders; the integration of simple and complex nodes with the plant designs (flower and leaf); using node on background of plants designs such a way that these two forms of design are not related meaningfully; the integration of node with the Kufic inscriptions. The spaces in the altars that are assigned to the nodes are the inner surface of arcades, front or side wall of the arcades, spandrels and half columns and because these sections are so important in the altars, the function of nodes in the stuccoed altars cannot be ignored or considered as subsidiary. But what is important here is that almost in all the samples that were studied (except some nodes that were used in the narrow borders and columns), the nodes have been integrated with the plant elements (arabesques and khataei) or exist beside them simultaneously and this is one of the significant features of geometric motifs in the stuccoed altars of Ilkhanid period.

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One of the most attractive and most diverse decorations of the Safavid period architecture is Nastaliq inscriptions that have been implemented in different ways in buildings with different applications. The scrolls contain valuable information such as a description of the building, patrons and artists who identify and introduce them to clear the hidden aspects of architecture and calligraphy history.
In addition, the aesthetic aspects of this work are also being investigated. From this perspective, one of the things that cannot be oblivious to it, the variety of practices those impacts on the quality of calligraphy in the inscriptions. The aim of this study is to identify common practices and introducing lesser-known practices in the implementation of Nastaliq inscriptions in the architectural decoration belonging Safavid dynasty.
This fundamental research is the descriptive study was conducted; the sampling method used is Post Stratification. Accordingly, the 204 available inscriptions have been studied. More than sixty percent of the documentary has been gathered by field researches. The results indicate that the first Nastaliq inscriptions were in 9th mid-century A.H. carving used in the series of gravestones in Herat.
Results show that in the Safavid period, this way has continued. In this period, the techniques divided to 6 main ways which containing 17 separable distinct subsets. The abundance percentage of the most common methods in inscriptions shows that: Stoney (51%) and Tile working (24.9%) are the most two usage ways. After those, the ornaments made of plaster, wood, metal and painting in terms of the number of samples are the other techniques. According to the classification of different methods, there are 6 unique techniques in research samples: Koshte-bori and Tokhme-gozari (two branches of Stucco Decorations) at Pinia House in Naein and Nim-Avard School at Isfahan, Laye-Chini (Gilded Decoration on Plaster) at Aliqapou Palac in Isfahan, Hakkaki (Wood Engraving) at Jame mosque in Natanz, Moshabbak-felez (Metallic Reticular) at Darbe-Imam in Isfahan and Qalamzani Barjaste (Metallic Relief Scrimshaw) at Chaharbagh School in Isfahan.   
Also, when applying such methods was used in architectural decoration are investigated based on dated samples. On the basis of dated inscriptions can be proposed as follows: the first technique is Stone Carving at 922-923 A.H. in Maydan mosque in Kashan and tomb of Imamzade Abolfotooh in Vanshan. Mosaic Tile is the next method which used probably in 918 and certainly in 951 A.H. After these two styles, respectively: Woodcut (963 A.H), Stucco (979 A.H), Metallic Scrimshaw (1011 A.H), Wood Engraving (1012 A.H), Stone Engraving (1020 A.H), and Stone Mosaic (1031 A.H), Haft-Rang Tile (1034 A.H), Painting (1073 A.H), Metallic Reticular (mid-11th century A.H), Rooye-koobi (1091 A.H), Tokhme-gozari and Laye-Chini (early 12th century A.H) and finally Metallic Relief Scrimshaw (1120 A.H).
This study shows that the variety of technical method used in Nastaliq Inscription was limited on first half of Safavid era and the culmination of a variety of methods has been in the 11th century A.H.

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Yazd has an outstanding history of principle and science of agriculture and farming. Water and safety along the ground as the mother of agriculture can be setting up the farmstead on the land. The farmsteads are subordinate or independent inhabitant complex, and they are part of a village or a borough. Inhabited farm as a section that has affected and influenced by social, political and cultural factors in different periods of time, is a living collection with different size and population. Information in multiple sources indicates that the inhabited farms existed in the borough and rural districts since pre-Islamic era to early Islamic period and to the Pahlavi’s dynasty, the farms are identified with titles such as Dastkart, Keshtkhāni castles and complex, farmstead. The government assigned the farms as gifts, fief, Iqta’ (tax farming) and Sivergual (tax farming)

During the research process, many farms in Yazd, Maybod, Mehriz, Taft, Dehshir, Abarqo, Dehnow, Deh Sheikh, Shams Abad, Taraz Abad, Shah Abad, Deh Youk, Khoshk Abad, Khormiz, Ezzat Abad, and Mazraeh Kalantar…were chosen for field studies. Many of these farms are unknown to the public and academic communities, and there are no resources and independent research which include historical backgrounds of inhabited farms. Written and verbal documents show that inhabited independent and subsidiary (minor and major) farms were in the villages of Yazd. The majority of the formation of the administration, economic and political of Yazd until the Pahlavi era with widespread of Waqf (devotion) system, depended on farms and their products to stabilize things and make the interests. And sometimes provided to farm and develop a set of endowments in a region.

 Some of these farms have none construction and only used for producing agricultural products, therefore these farmsteads are uninhabited farms or agricultural farms. No settlement and permanent residence are in these sorts of farms. Yazd's “Qalé Bāq (garden castle) and Keshtkhān (tillage)” are in “agricultural farm” category. Besides the farming, the farm has settlement and residence. These farms are “inhabitant” and contain facilities and places such as a summerhouse, manor, hovel, major and minor residential castles, battlement, water-mill and reservoir, the main avenue. “Yazd's hardship and rural Keshtkhāni (tillage) and castles” are in this category and are remembered as “instance/example of farm” in verbal and written kinds of literature. There are mentions in books such as “Jamé Mofidi, 1363”, “Jamé al-Kheirat 1962”, “Yadegar Haye Yazd (Yazd's memories) vol. 1-2, 1995”, “Tarikh Jadid Yazd (Yazd's new history) 1966” … that refer to these fields and discuss them as “farm”.

With the revocation of manorial in the Qajar era, land reform and owners departure to the other countries and major cities, many of these farms losing their nature and forms and will be destroyed.

Nowadays, there are no understanding and conservation of the historic farms; the international community is paying attention to these farms, conventions, recommendations and international charters (Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972 and the Charter of Florence, 1981) emphasized the important of knowledge, understanding, introduction, registration and protection of the properties that based on the definitions are in the category of the cultural landscape. In addition, there are models of historical farms in other countries. These models can be helpful in understanding the inhabited farms.

The research is trying to examine the subject with the help of the history and historical geography in the artificial and architecture as a tangible heritage which should be protected. And to survey the affected and influenced fields in terms of subject, time and place of the study. So apart from the written documents mentioned in this article that is addressed the inhabited farms in Yazd from authors’ perspective, only oral and palpable documents in the farms can ease the research process. Understanding the historical farms are recognising a large part of the folk culture of ethnic groups. It has the trade systems, tribute and ransom, ownerships, leases and legal, judiciary and administrative system. In 2015 these farms being recognised and has been studying. Yazd, Maybod, Mehriz, Taft, Dehshir, Abarqo, Dehnow, Deh Sheikh, Shams Abad, Taraz Abad, Shah Abad, Deh Youk, Khoshk Abad, Khormiz, Ezzat Abad, Mazraeh Kalantar…. Many of these farms are vulnerable due to various causes.

Particular studies on written and verbal documents, evaluation, measuring, interpretation and explanation can lead us to the perception and explanation of the subject, and so to the approach of the conservation. This leading should be discussed and showed in universities and research institutions.

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Introduction: Inscriptions are considered as one of the most significant form of decorations that have been used mostly in the mihrabs and involve Quranic verses, prophet’s sayings, religious expressions as well as the date and the name of their creators. The stuccoed mihrabs of the Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods were no exception in which the inscriptions have many visual features including using a letter/ word or a decorative form at 45° angles of the inscriptions all around the mihrabs. The aim of this research, therefore, is to identify different kinds of these letters/ words or decorative forms in the inscriptions carved around the mihrabs created during the 12th and 14th centuries and compare them with each other. Thus, the following question has been put to be answered: what are different kinds of decorative forms used in the inscriptions of the stuccoed mihrabs created during the Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods and what are their similarities and differences in terms of their functions?
Methodology: This research is carried out using a historical-comparative method. Regarding the innovative theme of the article, first the attempt has been made to identify how decorative form in the inscription of the mihrab is used. Then, the researcher has tried to find this decorative form in the stuccoed mihrabs of the 12th and 14th centuries. Then, the letters/ words or the decorative forms of these mihrabs are compared and their significant features are described.
  The data was collected mostly from the selected samples through field researches, i.e. photography and linear designs of the images and the provided pictures are drawn using Photoshop and Matrix. The library resources are also used to introduce the historical records and describe the stuccoed mihrabs.
Conclusion:The results, obtained from studying 22 stuccoed mihrabs assigned to Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods, show that, in each period, it was common to use a word similar to لا »  «or decorative forms at 45° angles of the inscriptions around the mihrabs and they can be seen in different forms: using a single letter of the inscription (separately) that are diagonal (symmetrical) at angles; using a form like the word لا that is sometimes simple and sometimes elaborate and with detailed decorations. According to studies and the samples obtained from the above decorative form, the لا-like decorative forms can be classified into different groups that involve various types in terms of: 1) vaiation in node-like forms of the letters ل and ا and 2) the relation between the decorative form and the margin box, decoration or inscription. The node-shaped variation is such that the letters ل and ا are tied together in the middle and this tied part can be classified as triangle, square or rectangle and circle. The complexity of knitting these two letters is different and in some samples, it is so elaborate. The way these letters/ words or the decorative form are used in angles can also be considered because sometimes it is related to the margins and walls of the frame and is located such a way that its relation with the upper or lower lines of the border frame is definite and sometimes it is independently located at 45° without having to be attached to the margin box. According to the distinction of this decoration form, which varies from the sixth century to the 12th century, we can point out that at the angles of the stuccoed mihrabs of Ilkhanid period, more elaborate and detailed لا-like decorative forms were used compared with the Seljuk period and also, during the Ilkhanid period, this form has been changed to a pine fruit/ tear with various decorations this decorative form has been widely used in the inscription of the stuccoed mihrab.
 

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A review of the history of architectural conservation implies that ontological attitude of scholars and theorists in the field of historic places› conservation is one of the most important principles of conservation theories. Those features of historic places which are considered as more significant at the moment of recognition are often turned into an issue for conservation. However, there is not a clear understanding of such an issue, especially its theoretical basics, in Iran›s today community.
Accordingly, this paper explores the ontology of historic places by relying on Transcendental Wisdom ascribed to Sadr al-Moto›alehin Shirazi and based on the doctorine of «Principality of the Existence» which offers an explication of the existence of material beings. In this line, the mentioned relations between «material and form», «form and meaning» and «extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of things» in the system of Transcendental Wisdom and also the theory of Substantial Motion and its explanation apropos the fluid existence of material beings and finally transcendentalism›s conceptualization of the relation between «existent» and «being» in the world›s system are the main views taken from such a philosophy. In all, since this study is in line with Sadraei›s philosophy it enjoys analytical-philosophical nature and employs logical reasoning and analogical methodology.
Respectively, the historic place is scrutinized from three aspects. The first aspect refers to such a place «as a single measurable totality» whereas the other two aspects regard it «as a changeable totality» and «as an element within the contextual measures».
With respect to the first aspect, the existence of the historic place is considered as a measurable element enjoying several levels of emergence. These levels constitute the triple aspects of meaning, form (and its extrinsic determinations) and material. Also, corresponding to each aspect, the historic place gains some measures. Consequently, regarding the measures of any historic place, we can talk about the measures referring to meaning, form (intrinsic and extrinsic measures) and material.
Moreover, among these levels, each level is more significant than the lower levels representing the existence of the historic place. In other words, the existence of the historic place is manifested in its intrinsic form and meaning more than anything else and the material as well as the extrinsic determinations of the form are simply the manifestations or, in a word, the context for the emergence of the historic place›s existence. However, a historic place is finally a single entity which has existential integrity and the aforementioned levels are not separate from each other in reality.
Then, the temporality and mixing of the historic place›s existence with change is considered. In this respect, relying on the theory of Substantial Motion, the historic place is regarded as a «changeable totality» and evolving issue mingled with time. In this respect, the historic place is a fluid entity, not an object, which is a permanent becoming; it is a gradually-occurring matter and is like an entity scattered in time whose past and future constitute different parts of a single entity. Thus, in reality, we cannot talk about persistence and consistency in the existence of the historic place and just the issue of continuity in its existence can be raised. This continuity is possible due to the becoming on the orbit of measures referring to its particular existence. But the question that other than the measures of the historic place in the mentioned triple aspects what other measures referring to its particular existence can be found paves the way for paying attention to another aspect of its existence.
In this aspect, the historic place is considered not as a single totality but as a part of its surrounding world which can be the world in the broadest scope. It is argued that simply recognizing the elements within the existence of the historic place cannot provide full knowledge of it and it is necessary to consider its inevitable relation to the environment or more general context. Accordingly, the historic place as an entity becomes the manifestation of «being» and its validity depends on such a manifestation. In this aspect, the historic place becomes the manifestation (relatively speaking) of the names and attributes of the being and the regularities originated from it and, consequently, it is located under the existential systems of the world and its manifestations in the natural as well as the cultural world. These systems or orders have some manifestations in the nature such as a number of laws referring to qualitative and quantitative aspects of the place (meaning, form and material). In this respect, the cultural measures and orders receive their validity via corresponding to existential systems and thus they can be used as a criterion for the existence of the historic place.
In general, from the perspective of this study, the historic place is first and foremost an «integrated totality and objective measurable entity which changes permanently» while its particular measures (in the triple levels of meaning, form and material) are located under the existential systems manifested in the natural as well as cultural rules. It should also be considered that the validity of the historic place›s existence depends on its capacity to manifest the existential systems. Thus, the constant and necessary matter in it is the very orders or existential measures manifested in it which can be called «the aspect of being» or «Allah›s aspect» in a word.
 

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In Islamic standpoints, many issues are expressed about the beauty. When it comes to talk about beauty in Islam and the Holy Quran context, the first step towards creating perception and defining the criteria for beauty is perhaps attaining a logical and specific system of definition from the beauty concept in the so called context. By referring to the written texts in this field by philosophers, theoreticians, and Aestheticians, various definitions of beauty are attained that confuses the reader. Since sometimes the beauty is dignified in a way that it stands next to the God name and elsewhere is defined as the coordination of components in an object or it is considered to depend on the human perception whether is understood sensible or rational. This discrepancy in the levels of beauty definitions is such that finally the reader does not know where to find beauty. As a result, no specific criterion is achieved for the evaluation of beauty.
By studying the verses including the word “Hosn” and its derivatives, it is concluded that beauty and “Hosn” are explained at different levels in Quran verses. So the main issue of this article is the discrepancy in beauty definition levels in the Islamic context and the lack of a specific definition system in this field along with the ambiguity of the relationship between beauty and admiration with art in this standpoint.
The purpose of this article is to attain a specific definition system to organize the definitions of beauty upon which a criterion for beauty evaluation and suitable relationship between beauty and its admiration can be gained.
Methodology: For this purpose, the method of gathering the verses containing “Hosn” and its derivatives was implemented by considering verse-oriented meaning of the word derived by full inductive reasoning. Then the analysis method and classification of the verses based on the derived subjects were used to find the different levels of beauty. Finally, using the accordance of these levels with existing definitions in the field of beauty, the classification of the levels and then deriving the levels of “Tasdiq” or confirmation and beauty admiration were done.
Defining firm levels for the beauty and proving this hypothesis with full inductive reasoning from the Quranic verses and the correspondence of these levels with the definitions of beauty is presented for the first time as a novelty.  These levels are defined by gathering all the verses containing the word “Hosn” and its derivatives in the Holy Quran in a way that one can claim that no verse about “Hosn” exists unless it can be classified in these levels, and furthermore, all the levels also include some verses.
Results: By contemplation on the verses of the Holy Quran, it seems that five levels of “Hosn” exist. Based on these levels the concept of beauty also has levels. These levels enable us to classify the presented definitions of beauty by the experts in these five levels. In other words, wherever beauty is mentioned, the desired level could be specified and evaluated. Looking at “Hosn” at different levels, creates more accurate and more detailed insight which makes possible any theoretical and applied addressing of “Hosn” more functional and scientific. About the definition of “Hosn” and beauty in the Holy Quran according to the expressed levels, perhaps it can be mentioned that:
1st level: Existential emanation of “Hosn” at “Asma-ol-Hosna”.
2nd level: Emanation of “Hosn” and beauty in creatures and creations.
3rd level: Comprehension, recognition, and perception of “Hosn” and beauty with human Fitrah or premordial human nature.
4th level: Freewill human expressions from “Hosn” and beauty in behavior, actions, and speech.
5th level: The effects of “Hosn” and beauty in the destiny and the consequences of the human deeds.
Also some levels of “Tasdiq” or confirmation and beauty admiration could be expressed based on the beauty levels:
“Tasdiq” or confirmation of the existentiality of “Hosn” and Admiration of the entity.
“Tasdiq” or confirmation of the manifested “Hosn” in the existent and the well admiration of “Hosn” manifestation.
“Tasdiq” or confirmation of the wellness of “Hosn” and admiration of “Hosn” perception.
“Tasdiq” or confirmation of the wellness of good deeds and admiration of “Hosn” expression in the humankind.
“Tasdiq” or confirmation of the wellness of the good destiny and Admiration of the effectiveness and fruitfulness of “Hosn”
The levels of “Hosn” and admiration of the beauty in the art can have practical aspects; such that the artist can reflect the desired level of beauty in his artwork according to the audience needs. Also the critics of artworks can have more accurate evaluation by implementing the levels of “Hosn” as one of the fundamentals of evaluation. Besides, the cultural directors of a society by acquiring the knowledge of “Hosn” and beauty levels along with considering the needs and the growth of specific audiences can take more accurate actions towards choosing artworks for displaying to the audience based on the guidance and nurturing capability of art with Quranic fundamentals.