Journal of Researches in Islamic Architecture

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Seljuk period is one of the important periods of Islamic Art in Iran architecture. The Seljuk brickworks represent Iran architectural perfection in aspects of techniques and variety. The magnificence of Seljuk brickworks is not found in other later periods. Therefore, further investigation is needed due to the importance of this issue. In this research, literature reviews, field studies and survey is done by analytical- descriptive method. The aims of research are as followed introducing the important motifs of brickworks identify, variety of layout types, and the sustain modality of brickworks during the historical periods. According to the aims, all of Seljuk monuments in Iran which have brickwork decoration were detected and their brickwork decorations identified. The decorations which were unique at that time and were repeated, has been determined as index motifs. Afterward, these motifs and the techniques were found in Khwarezmid and Ilkhanid monuments and their changes or conversions to other decorations have been identified. Most of the architectural exterior surfaces are decorated by the brickwork in Seljuk period funerary monuments with polygonal plan have the most decorative surfaces such as Kharaghan tombs and minarets. In this period, the simplicity of minarets was changed to richest drawing and decorative forms such as Menar-e Ziar and Cheheldokhtaran. It is noteworthy that in addition to this, the monuments including the Robatsharaf Inn and Jame mosque of Golpayegan are decorated with verity brick motifs which combine with stucco reliefs. In general, decorative designs and prolific body of brickwork is one of the special features of Seljuk architecture. Various brick rows are used in the Seljuk monuments and they are categorized to Golchin, Jenaghi, Hasiri, Doraj, Kofi Magheli and Bannaie inscriptions. Golchin’s motifs have some “mother” patterns which are combined tomake various designs. Golchin motifs perform in tow groups “simple” and “compound”. Jenaghi brickwork, perhaps because of its easy performance,has usually been used in corner of the dome and arches. Also some different technique of brickworks such as “Khofteraste” (relieve motifs), Moshabak, Gerehbannaie perform in outer surfaces of Seljuk monuments. Khofteraste brickwork technique was used in high altitudesin order to relieve its motifs. Moshabak technique was used in doorway to pass light through andGerehbannaie generally was used for minaret decorations Selengeh, Chaharlengeh, Sheshvahasht are the prevalent motifs of Ghereh in Seljuk period. An innovative technique: combination of brick with different materials used in Seljuk period that followed in later periods. Hence, Seljuk monuments are decorated by different brickwork in motifs and techniques including the Golchin and Gereh. In addition, initiative techniques such as the incorporation of brick with tile (glazed brick) or stucco were created by artists as well as Kofie-bannaie. Accordingly, it is obvious that Seljuk brickwork decoration is the rising point of Persian brickworks. In Khwarezmid and Ilkhanid periods, brickwork decorations were not used as extent as before. In these periods, brickwork was replaced with stucco and tile. However, some of brickwork decorations such as Golchin, Doraj, Magheli and Bannaie inscriptions were followed by the next periods. Also, the Gereh motifs of Seljuk period became the source of compound decoration for the next time. In Khwarezmid period, molded bricks with relief motifs were developed. This kind of molded bricks in combination with glazed molded brick or the tile, which were pre-cut or insitu-cut, became very common throughout, Khwarezmid and Ilkhanid periods. In such way that incorporation of brick with tile included the hole of decorations during the following periods. Pre-cut brick and pre-cut tile techniques at the end of Seljuk period were used in GonbadKabud in Maragheh and it became the beginning point of this type of decorations in the following periods. The techniques of brick and tile combination so called-Moarraq (mosaic) exists in Khwarezmid monuments such as ForoumadJame mosque and Malekzozan. Also, some skillfully combination of brick and tile were used in two important Ilkhanid monuments including Gonbad-e Soltaniye and Bayazid-e Bastami treasury. It could be argued that combined decorations (combining brick with tile) belongs to the culmination of Ilkhanid decorations. Hence, variety of techniques and innovations that happened in the brickworks of Seljuk periods caused some changes in the decorations of the following periods. Gradually, new types of architectural decoration over the motif, function, and accomplishment were developed based on changes done during Seljuk period.

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In Islamic architecture, especially in mosque, the main consideration is to the prayer spirit. For this reason, Quran inscriptions cover the most parts of the decorations of architecture. Altars are always one of the elements with full of motifs decoration because of dignity and its position. The decorations are including Quranic verses and themes. Mosque decorations inscriptions are a main source to investigation the views and religious thoughts. Identifying the Quranic Inscriptions of stucco Ilkhanid alters and understanding their contents are the aims of this paper. Totally, decorative inscriptions of Altars are divided to four groups date, signature (name of the architect and artist. Etc.), supplements and endowments, religious phrases (names of God, the Quran verses, Hadith, name of the prophet and Imams). The present study focuses on the themes of Quranic verses and the contents of them that used in Ilkhanid stucco altars. Altar Stucco decorations consist mainly of arabesque motifs, geometric and inscriptions. One of the visual characteristics of Ilkhanid stucco altars is “decorative inscriptions” that widely have been performed in different styles and forms at the altars, so far the inscriptions become the basic elements of altar decorations in the Ilkhanid Altars, the Oljayto altar and the Jame-bastam altar are perfect examples that their design have been formed on inscription style. Perhaps the importance of calligraphy in the seventh and eighth centuries AH, or a plurality of skillful calligraphers- such as Yaghout Mosta`sami- caused further manifestation of calligraphy and extension of Quranic inscriptions in decoration of buildings. Earlier Kufic script has been used in decorating architecture at fourth century, Moreover Kufi script, other inscription styles such as “Sols”, “Reqa`e” and “Solse-mos`als`al” as well as ‘B`anaiee’ and ‘M`agheli’ in content of religious phrases become popular in stucco decoration at Ilkhanid era.

 In this study, some investigations were done with using descriptive-analytical method, to achieve content of Quranic verses and their relations to the place application. The results of twenty-one altars indicate that one to four suras of Quran used in an altar, for example the Jame-Save mosque and the Jame-Bastam Mosque contain four different suras, meanwhile, just the Oljayto altar have no “Quranic” inscriptions! Ilkhanid altars consist of twenty-one different verse from suras that the first verses of “Mo`menoun”, 1 to 4 verses of “D`ahr”, 1 to 4 verses of “Fat`h”, 255 vers of “Baghare”, 18 to 19 verses of “Tobeh”, and sura “Fateha” completely, were the most used. Content of the altar inscriptions are grouped in few categories “Tohidi verses”, “prays”, “characteristic of the believers”, “describe the characteristics of mosque authors”, “Muslim victory over enemies”. Sometimes the inscriptions are used beside each other and referring to essence of Allah, worshiping, and Allah praying. The contents of some verses are the oneness of God and the worship of God, as well as the other verses reveal “characterization of believers” that specify the qualities of ways and the path of believers. Praying is also one of the first characteristics of the Muslims in Tohidi verses and also is specified rules of the pray conduct, in order to guide believers on a direction and builds up a unity of Muslims with the aim of achieving victory and pride.

In addition to the above, some features are stated to those build the mosques because the mosque is the sacred in Islam and everyone does not deserve to enter in this way. Generally, verses of the “Tohidi”, “prays”, and “authors of mosques” had the most usage. Hence, the content of altar Quranic inscriptions is related to the application place and their dignity in the mosque, to lead up the prayer spirit and richness up the people.

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Tabriz has an old history that thanks to its proper geographical and climatical condition. This geographical situation has been made Tabriz to a permanent habitat center. This city in the early centuries of Islam has extended on the central mosque, bazaar, square and government palace. In the year 663 A.H, Abagha Khan has moved the capital from Maragheh to Tabriz. In the Ilkhanid era except for a short time at the time of the monarchy Oljaito (Mohammad Khodabandeh) since the 703-716 A.H that Tabriz and Soltaniyeh were the capital simultaneously, at other times, Tabriz has been capital and the seat of government. At the time of Ghazan Khan has have the most architectural and urban changes. After Ilkhanids in the early of 8^th century, Jalayerian was also ruled this city and governed some parts of Iran. In the late 8^th century that Teimorian was ruled out Samarkand and Bokhara, Tabriz was continually important city and important political-cultural center And after that in the 9^th and 10^th A.H centuries and also in the Qoyunlus era till mid government of Shah Tahmasb (Safavid era) in the year of 962 A.H. Tabriz was the genuine capital city of Iran. Therefore with transferring the capital city from Maraghe by Abagha Khan to Tabriz in the Ilkhanid era, it becomes more than ever attractive for mystics, poets, saints and ministers from different parts of Iran and also neighbor countries. Also during these eras many travelers has visited Tabriz and have presented many useful information in the form of itineraries. These important people during their lives time caused to creation of some novel architectural spaces like: Khangah and Zavieh in the city that after the death of them we are witnessing the formation of the tombs and Hazireh as new urban spaces after Islam. We know that in different cultures, different approaches has taken to the deads And Iran after Islam, is the place that in which deals to burial and the death, tomb and in the following the cemetery has a special importance. In addition, cemeteries depending on the people who are buried there, take different spatial qualities and since the “undoubtedly the tomb is the most important monument after mosque in the Islamic era which has been seen in the most cities of Iran.” These novel spaces in many cases had an essential role in development or city construction. This process goes-on until the middle of Safavid government and reputation of Tabriz city as the capital has continued. According to thesis of this article the tombs of mystics, poets, saints and ministers could have significant effect in the development of urban structure of Tabriz city. Proving the thesis of this research, in addition to the existence of multiple tombs of these people that have been buried in different parts of this city, there are many reliable books like Rozat al-jinan by Hafez Hossein Kabalayi in the year 975 A.H, Rozat al-Athar by Molla-Hashri in the year 1101 A.H, Olad al-Athar by Seyyed-Mohammad Sadegh Tabatabayi Tabrizi in the year 1300 A.H and Manzar al-Oliya by Mohammad Tabrizi in the year 1315 A.H. We can present a rigorous classification from mystics, poets, saints and ministers according to a study of mentioned books to fit the 5 periods between 7^th to 10^th centuries. Also to ensure more, other small studies about the research subject is investigated named literature. Now the question of this article arises that: whether the Tombs of mystics, poets, saints and ministers have the effect in the development of urban structure of Tabriz city in the capital times of this city that’s Ilkhanid Era to Safavid Era? Therefore, the aim of this research is to investigate the effect of cemeteries in the development of urban structure of Tabriz city since seventh century to tenth century of hegira that coincides with Ilkhanid government to Safavid in Tabriz. For doing so, introducing books including Rozat al-jinan, Rozat al-Athar, Olad al-Athar and Manzar al-Oliya seems necessary. For fulfilling the research main goal, the data were collected by descriptive method using the liberary and field approach (implement) also the collected data were analyzed in analytical and comparative way. In order to respond to the research question, a method involving four steps was used: 1.classification of the people and cemeteries, 2.using manner of introducing the cemeteries in order to identify the Tabriz architectural and urban elements in the past, 3-referring to the travel books subjects in different periods and 4-adaptation of the former steps findings and responding to the research question.

The findings of this research revealed that cemeteries were effective factors in construction of Ghazanid fort in Ilkhanid period. Also, cemeteries of the famous people had a significant impact on development of some routes such as the connective route of the two complexes of Rabe Rashidi and Shanb Ghazan in the eastern and western parts of the city and location of some architectural outstanding elements like Dameshqiye building, Shah Hossein Valy shrine and Kamal Khojandi’s convent and consequently urban spaces such as Seyyed Hamzeh complex which is known as Magbarat al-Shoara. In addition, existence of Hazireh and aggregation of tombs have been led to the formation of famous cemeteries like Sorkhab, Gajil, Charandab and Qolle in the city of Tabriz.

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Introduction: The plaster altars of Ilkhanid period, as one of the most glorious decorative representations of architecture of this period, are a unique collection of motifs and different inscriptions that has a great diversity in construction dimensions and forms. These reliefs that are included in almost all parts of plaster altars, including frontal, margins, columns, capitals, arches, etc. have different plant (arabesque and khataei) and geometric reliefs most of them are integrated with existing Kufic scripts. In this article, the researcher tries to introduce different geometric motifs used in plaster altars of Ilkhanid period and evaluate the variety, constancy or frequency and application of each of these nodes in different parts of altars, in terms of the extent of assigned area and the used position.

In this research that is done with a focus on the stuccoed altars attributed to the Ilkhanid period 12 stuccoed altars are selected from 5 provinces and the researcher tries to answer the following questions: what are the mostly used nodes in the stuccoed altars of the Ilkhanid period? Where are these nodes used in different parts of the altar and what is their relation with the plant designs or lines used in the altars? Regarding the fact that needle decorations are identified as the common geometric designs in the plaster works of Seljuq and Ilkhanid periods, the researcher does not consider them in this research and just focuses on the node designs. Since it is very important to deal with the plaster arrays that have geometric motifs and there is not any rule to detect and distinguish the altars of Ilkhanid period from the samples that were made before, this research can be considered as an introduction for understanding the visual styles of the ornaments during the Ilkhanid period which have been ignored in the literature so far.

Methodology: Data collection has been made based on field research (taking photos, linear analysis of pictures) and written references that has analyzed the collected data from the samples through historical- comparative method based on geometric patterns. First, each altar and its motifs (especially the geometric ones) are described and then, they are classified and analyzed using the tables, diagrams and investigating some samples of the geometric motifs and the places they were used and also integrating them with other motifs and scrolls. The data was collected using documentary resources, field researches, observations made by the authors, images of the geometric motifs of the altars and drawing different types of nodes with Matrix 7.0.

Conclusion: The results obtained from 12 dated plaster altars of Ilkhanid period shows that the role of these Knots in these altars is very important most of them are based on the numbers 6 and 8. These Knots are mostly on the side walls, in front of arch and the edges of the plaster altars and in the most studied samples, the Knots are integrated with plant motifs (flowers, leaves, etc.) and simple geometric figures (circle, triangle, oval, etc.). Among the studied stuccoed altars, the only one in which nodes have been used widely, is the arcade of the altar in the central Mosque of Orumieh (Urmia) because this kind of node has not been used in any of the other plastered altars of Ilkhanid period. Oljeitu altar is the only example in which there is the unique node of reversed top that has been combined with Kufic inscriptions.

Generally, it is possible to classify the nodes in the stuccoed altars of Ilkhanid period in terms of patterns and designs into the following groups: the function of simple nodes alone in the narrow borders; the integration of simple and complex nodes with the plant designs (flower and leaf); using node on background of plants designs such a way that these two forms of design are not related meaningfully; the integration of node with the Kufic inscriptions. The spaces in the altars that are assigned to the nodes are the inner surface of arcades, front or side wall of the arcades, spandrels and half columns and because these sections are so important in the altars, the function of nodes in the stuccoed altars cannot be ignored or considered as subsidiary. But what is important here is that almost in all the samples that were studied (except some nodes that were used in the narrow borders and columns), the nodes have been integrated with the plant elements (arabesques and khataei) or exist beside them simultaneously and this is one of the significant features of geometric motifs in the stuccoed altars of Ilkhanid period.

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Introduction: From the 14th century that is concurrent with Ilkhanid rule in Iran, some exquisite plaster works have been remained some of which have artist code and date; therefore, they can be considered as valuable study references for genealogy of the artists of plaster works and their individual styles. These plaster works can be seen mostly in magnificent Mihrabs, plaster inscriptions and tablets of mosques, tombs, etc. In tilings, wall drawings and the wooden works of art of this period, also, one can see the name and the code of artists and regarding their nicknames or their relations, it is possible to find their family relationship with plaster workers. In this article, the author tries to review and study the the hypotheses and theories proposed by researchers and professionals about the genealogy, individual styles of 14th-century artists. Therefore, the plaster works coded by the artists, like Kermani, Damghani, Baboyeh and the nikname Abu Shoja which are in Isfahani, Natanz, Torbat Jam, Sirjan, Bastam and Qom were selected to be studied in order to answer the question raised in this research: what are the visual features of the coded plaster works in terms of composition, motifs and inscriptions of the individual style of the every artist in 14th century? Regarding the fact that the stylistics of these decorations is a complex issue and needs to be studied in detail, the visual styles of these decorations have been described in this research and a diagram has been proposed for the family relationships between the artists who made them. In addition, some hypotheses are formulated using a historical-analytical method based on field and library researches on the remained works and historical resources.
Methodology: This research has been done using a historical-analytical method through an adaptive approach. First, the attempt has been made to describe the individual style of the artists during this period and study the most prominent plant and geometric motifs and compositions and the way they have been integrated with other motifs and inscriptions. The data was collected based on documentary resources, field researches, observations made by the authors, taking photos of the coded plaster works and drawing some samples using Matrix 7.0.
Conclusion: The results obtained from studying the coded plaster works of 14th century show cooperation among the artist groups that often had family relationship with each other. But distribution
of the works and their technical variation show that all members of an artistic family did not always
work in a certain area or on a certain profession and there were not much limitation on using the
designs and works of other artists with special skills. However, the individual style of the artist
that mainly results from their skills and creativity can not be neglected in forming these significant
works with unique visual features. In general, the visual features that were studied in the samples
include: 1) using multilayered plant compositions and large arabesque motifs with Ajdehkari and
detailed decorations that are mostly seen in Kermanian artists’ works of arts in Iran, 2) using plant
motifs with unique decorations (human and animal-like) and special plant compositions (compact
arches) and integrating geometric motifs (knots) with plant motifs in Bastam by Damghanian artists
that makes a special style in the stucco ornaments in this region, 3) plant (arabesque) proboscis-like
motifs and some margins involving simple geometric motifs in the plaster and tiling works of an
artist with the nikname Baboyeh, 4) the extensive use of strong and vivid colors, decorating the
inside parts of the ceiling with geometric (knot) motifs integrated with plant, geometric motifs and
inscriptions in the works of an artist with the nikname Abu Shoja and sometimes following some
styles n plaster working with technical differences that can be seen in the tomb of Pir Bakran.

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Introduction: Inscriptions are considered as one of the most significant form of decorations that have been used mostly in the mihrabs and involve Quranic verses, prophet’s sayings, religious expressions as well as the date and the name of their creators. The stuccoed mihrabs of the Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods were no exception in which the inscriptions have many visual features including using a letter/ word or a decorative form at 45° angles of the inscriptions all around the mihrabs. The aim of this research, therefore, is to identify different kinds of these letters/ words or decorative forms in the inscriptions carved around the mihrabs created during the 12th and 14th centuries and compare them with each other. Thus, the following question has been put to be answered: what are different kinds of decorative forms used in the inscriptions of the stuccoed mihrabs created during the Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods and what are their similarities and differences in terms of their functions?
Methodology: This research is carried out using a historical-comparative method. Regarding the innovative theme of the article, first the attempt has been made to identify how decorative form in the inscription of the mihrab is used. Then, the researcher has tried to find this decorative form in the stuccoed mihrabs of the 12th and 14th centuries. Then, the letters/ words or the decorative forms of these mihrabs are compared and their significant features are described.
  The data was collected mostly from the selected samples through field researches, i.e. photography and linear designs of the images and the provided pictures are drawn using Photoshop and Matrix. The library resources are also used to introduce the historical records and describe the stuccoed mihrabs.
Conclusion:The results, obtained from studying 22 stuccoed mihrabs assigned to Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods, show that, in each period, it was common to use a word similar to لا »  «or decorative forms at 45° angles of the inscriptions around the mihrabs and they can be seen in different forms: using a single letter of the inscription (separately) that are diagonal (symmetrical) at angles; using a form like the word لا that is sometimes simple and sometimes elaborate and with detailed decorations. According to studies and the samples obtained from the above decorative form, the لا-like decorative forms can be classified into different groups that involve various types in terms of: 1) vaiation in node-like forms of the letters ل and ا and 2) the relation between the decorative form and the margin box, decoration or inscription. The node-shaped variation is such that the letters ل and ا are tied together in the middle and this tied part can be classified as triangle, square or rectangle and circle. The complexity of knitting these two letters is different and in some samples, it is so elaborate. The way these letters/ words or the decorative form are used in angles can also be considered because sometimes it is related to the margins and walls of the frame and is located such a way that its relation with the upper or lower lines of the border frame is definite and sometimes it is independently located at 45° without having to be attached to the margin box. According to the distinction of this decoration form, which varies from the sixth century to the 12th century, we can point out that at the angles of the stuccoed mihrabs of Ilkhanid period, more elaborate and detailed لا-like decorative forms were used compared with the Seljuk period and also, during the Ilkhanid period, this form has been changed to a pine fruit/ tear with various decorations this decorative form has been widely used in the inscription of the stuccoed mihrab.